Approaches To Political Science

Approaches To Political Science During the post- World War II period the predominant impetus that gave augmentation to behaviouralism as an approach to political science was the end of colonialism, and the subsequent birth of many new nation states. There was a general consensus that political science had to get into the game and offer assistance for national development if it was to be relevant to the contemporary world (Pye: 2006, p.799). Kavanagh (1983, p.196) believes that this was driven partly by impatience, growing during the inter-war years, with a perceived preoccupation with formal structures and institutions. Many histories of political science agree that the multi-dimensional and contradictory nature of politics has resulted in relative difficulty in establishing a clear definition of behaviouralism. As Waldo (1975, p. 58) specified whilst writing about the emergence of behaviouralism, what happened wascomplicated and somewhat obscure. Almost all those who endeavour to define behaviouralism acknowledge that every man puts his own emphasis and thereby becomes his own behaviouralist (Easton: 1962 p. 9) and attempts at coming to any complete definition of behaviouralism are probably futile given the diversity of those who followed its banner (Seidelman and Harpham: 1985 p. 151). However, for the purpose of this essay the behaviouralist approach will be defined as an attempt to improve our understanding of politics by seeking to explain the empirical aspects of political life by means of methods, theories, and criteria of proof that are acceptable according to the canons conventions and assumptions of modern empirical science (Dahl: 1961 p.767). The behaviouralistic revolution has had a substantial involvement in the evolution of political science, in which its scientific methodology and value centred approach (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.377) has influenced the subject matter and form of political science. Behaviouralism incorporates four foundational assumptions. Firstly, that there are discoverable uniformities in political behaviour commonly referred to as the regularity principle. Attempts to develop generalizations about political behaviour, i.e. to advance hypothesis about the relationships to discover uniformities or regularities or laws (Van Dyke: 1960, p.159). Secondly, behaviouralism dictates that the use empirical data is imperative for the means of maintaining a scientific approach to the study of politics (Brown: 2011). Thirdly, that there is a clear distinction between values and facts. A clear delineation between values and facts as well as, perhaps most importantly, the belief that facts remain neutral between various theories (Brown: 2011, p.2). Lastly, theories should be capable of being tested against observations. Crucially, genuinely explanatory theories must be capable of generating empirical predictions that can be tested against observation (Saunders: 2010, p.52 ). Theoretically at best behavioural research can produce a substantial theoretical and empirical contribution to the understanding and explanation of social behaviour (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.380). However, as I will discuss the full application of these assumption is rarely applied. For its advocates, behaviouralism has a number of advantages over other approaches to the study of political science. Possibly the least controversial assertion made on the approachs behalf was that it broadened the scope of political science, loosening previous constraints. Behaviouralism diverted attention away from conventionally legalistic study of constitutions and political institutions towards the political activities of real individuals in all stages of political science perhaps the least controversial claim made on the approchs behalf was that it widened the scope of poltical science. Behaviouralism, argue its champion, focused attention away from traditionally legalistic study of political institutions and consitutions towards the political actions of real people in all levels of political sceience developments in computer hardware and software has enabled the collection and processing of enormous quantities of data a behavioural emphasis is central to teh study of elctions and voting, perhaps the best known and most publiced mainfestation off the study of politics This essay will be split up into 3 parts, critically assessing why behaviouralism is an inadequate approach to the study of political science. Firstly, the essay will argue that an attachment to positivism is an inherent weakness in behaviouralism. Secondly, the essay will argue that both methodological potholes and maintaining subjectivity, challenge the impartiality of data collection, inclusion, and interpretation. Thirdly, the essay will explain why politics is not a natural science, focusing on variations in governance and human behaviour throughout the world. Positivism as a feature of Behaviouralism Positivism is a paradigm which states that all true knowledge is scientific in which all things are ultimately measurable (Brown: 2011, p.3). It is a notion intrinsically related to reductionism, in that both encompass the opinion that entities of one kind () are reducible to entities of another (Kim: 1965, p.318). As positivism is value free it contrasts with normative theory by providing descriptive rather than prescriptive statements. The first major critique of the behaviouralist approach is the opinion that it is inextricably linked to positivism, where it is reasoned that there is little to no room for normative discourse. The cost of the scientific identity to the discipline has been the marginalization of normative political theory (Duvall: 1998, p.1). In fact, positivism calls for an end to normative theory since it did not assist an empirical approach to the study of political science. However, countless scholars regard positivism with disdain, believing it to be adequate reason for the rejection of behaviouralism as a study of political science. Mises (1951) believes that positivism bares three major flaws, which collectively undermine its credibility within any concept, particularly behaviouralism. Behaviouralism complicated link with positivism has meant the political school of thought remains vulnerable to positivist criticisms (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.380). Firstly, normative discourse is largely discounted in the behaviouralist approach due to the fact that it cannot be defined by empirical or definitional statements. Similarly, under stringent positivist conditions there is no role for aesthetic and moral arguments, as these are not limited to empirical and definitional statements. Furthermore, there can be no role for the sort of hermeneutic analysis that attempts to understand understand social behaviour through deep reflection about the nature of human perceptions, thought processes and motivations (Sanders: 2010, p.51). If positivism seeks to reject these methods of reflection, the argument runs, it must be at fault. Whilst empiricism results in exactness it also has the additional value of instigating empirically falsifiable hypothesis, therefore it is contented that this dismissal of normative discourse is perilous. Sanders (2010, p.51) explained that the large class of statements that positivism labels as meaningless in fact contain many ideas that can add very significantly to our understanding of social behaviour and the human condition. Although I accept that the rejection of normative theory is paramount to maintaining a neutral inquiry. I believe that the failure to use deductive inquiry discredits the productiveness of behaviouralism in understanding the more subtle workings of the political world. Therefore it is argued that positivists underestimate the intricate relationships between theory and observation, particula rly in separating the effects of phenomena that are interrelated (Sharma and Sharma: 2003, p.379). Secondly, positivism is attacked on the basis of its exclusivity, and the assumption that the study of politics can be emulated by the study of natural science in order to successfully explain social phenomena. For example, one is unable to empirically research the relevant processes that lead to women often failing to ascertain top jobs within business. A positivist would only stick with what can be empirically established, rather than engage in more abstract theoretical reflection. As a direct result positivism fails to acknowledge the spatial trends, processes and intricacies which are involved in socioeconomic and political workings of life (Cloke, Philio and Sadler: 1992 p.15). Kavanagh (1983, p.192) agrees with this stating, normative theory always contains an element of the potential, and its validity is not in any way vitiated by people behaving differently from the pattern lai d down in the theory. Thirdly, positivists are criticised for their autonomy, they argue that science should be neutral, value free and objective. Critics of positivism believe that this creates a false sense of objectivity by artificially separating the observer from the observed, denying the existence of strong correspondence links (ibid, p.14). It is therefore argued that any weakness inherent in positivism must also therefore be inherent in behaviouralism (Sanders: 2010 p.51) and ultimately this acts as a fundamental anchor in the paradigm. Can the study of politics be value free? One of the initial assertions of the early behaviouralists was that hypothetical understanding could only be attained through a process of enquiry that began with theory-free observation of all the facts up to now and which then derived law-like generalizations inductively from the empirical regularities that were observed (Sanders: 2010, p.50). According to behaviouralists researchers take great troubles in order to assert the value free nature of their approach to the study of political science (Bay: 1965) and as result the political analyst is concerned with a scientific study of politics in its functional aspects. As such he has nothing to do with values or morals (Jayapalan: 2002, p.82). Theoretically the scientific methodological approach used in behaviouralism should produce theories and observations which remain unbiased, with a neutral point of view. However, in reality both methodological potholes and pseudo-ethical neutrality compromise the impartiality of empiricism, chal lenging the quality of research and observation. As a result, many critics of behaviouralism have identified numerous problems surrounding the collection, inclusion and interpretation of data, believing them to act as a critical shortcoming of the behaviouralistic approach. Huron (2000, p.3) believes that these fallacies, problems, biases, and effects that scholars have, over the centuries, recognized as confounding the conduct of good research. Although I acknowledge that these problems are not unique to behavioralism, as they affect every study of political science. I believe it is imperative to discuss them as they cause the behaviourists claim of objectivity to be problematic. Ultimately, this weakens the validity of behaviouralism as an approach to the study of political science. Methodological potholes Firstly, a lack of researcher neutrality and objectivity during data collection undermines the consistency and strength of empiricism. Proponents of a perspective may provide asymmetrical (one-sided) information, offering evidence that supports their conclusions while ignoring or suppressing other information (Litman: 2012, p.3). Cloke, Philio and Sadler (1992, p.18) refer to this concept as selective empiricism, in which researchers are able to cherry-pick data in order to obtain favourable outcomes. Questions can be defined, statistics selected and analysis structured to reach a desired outcome (Litman, 2012 p.12). For example, as researchers endeavour to remain policy relevant, this can lead to the production of research that conforms to the priorities of power (Wearing: 2010). Furthermore, the choice of research topics will undoubtedly bare some reflection on the researchers moral and political priorities. Research is framed and conducted is bound to reflect assumptions which wh ether held consciously, semi-consciously or unconsciously remain of a moral and political nature (Wearing: 2010). This selective or crude empiricism negates objectivity and neutrality and results in a lack of uniformity. Therefore, this lack of consistency entirely repudiates the legitimacy of behaviouralism as an adequate approach to the study of political science. Secondly, Sanders (2010) and Easton (1962) have argued that both a tendency towards mindless empiricism (Sanders, 2010, p.52) and a lack of quality empirical data have both undermined the legitimacy of empiricism. Sanders (2010 p.52) has argued that the indiscriminate inclusion of data has caused a situation in which behaviouralist emphasise what can be easily measured rather than what might be theoretically important tending to observe readily observed phenomena (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) rather than the more subtle, and perhaps deeper, structural forces that promote stability and change in social and political systems (Sanders: 2010, p.52-53). Many aspects of political life are subtle and are therefore unquantifiable. For example, the quality of interpersonal relationships between political leaders is not something that one statistically appraise, but yet the extent to which these leaders relate to one another could end up being important as to whether they cooperate. Similarly, Easton (196 2) supports this contention and believes that these more subtle workings of politics coupled with a lack of quality data has resulted in difficultly when using empirically falsifiable methods, and thus it has been suggested that behaviouralists chose their studies based on what is simple to test empirically, and not on the basis of academic worth. Not in light of theoretical or ethical relevance, but largely on grounds of accidental availability of technically adequate means of research (ibid, p.19). Sanders (2010) further supports this contention, asserting that in order to preserve the integrity of behaviouralism, behaviouralists have a tendency to circumvent or reject explanations that cannot be tested empirically. To rectify these issues would necessitate the abandonment of strict empiricism (Easton: 1962, p.19), which in quintessence is the pillar of behaviouralism. Whilst it would undeniable expand the credibility and relevance of the paradigm, abandoning such a fundamental fa cet would act to challenge and circumvent the other criteria that the paradigm necessitates. Ultimately, a deficiency of data combined with gratuitous empiricism suggests that behaviouralism is an incomplete notion; consequently this undermines its credibility as an adequate approach to the study of political science. Different understandings lead to different explanations The initial behaviouralists declared their approach to social enquiry to be both value-free and scientific. They claimed not be seeking to justify any particular ethical or political stance (Sanders: 2010, p.51) but rather sought to uncover the facts through impartial observation and to offer politically-neutral theories that would explain them in the most parsimonious way (ibid). However, as Nietzsche (1880) famously said there are no facts, only interpretations, no more so does this apply than to the interpretation of empirical data. Many critics of behaviouralism believe that different scholars studying the same problem are able to come to different conclusions, this initiated the argument that different understanding leads to different explanations. Be it subconsciously or intentional researchers are able to manipulate observations and theory, this undermines the objectivity of the test. Above all, the researcher himself is influenced to a certain extent, by his value preferences (Jayapalan: 2002, p.83). Many critics adamantly dispute the possibility of researcher neutrality, believing researcher bias to be inevitable. It is contended that objective theory and observation is always impossible, as some level of initial theoretical understanding is needed prior to the researcher deciding what will, and what should be observed. Sibley (1967) concurs with this criticism, and cites that the political investigator, no less than others, must have some notion of his own order of priorities before he proceeds to use the behavioural or any other approach (ibid, p.53). Hollis Smith (1991) support both these statements, explaining that there is no way of relating experience freely of its interpretation There are no brute facts-no facts prior to interpretation (ibid, p.52) Ultimately, it is suggested that researcher impartiality is idealistic and naÃÆ' ¯ve, and even subconsciously researchers are able to influence theory and observation. Marsh and Furlong (2002) sup ports this contention, going further to suggest that this is caused by any knowledge we derive (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) is mediated by the concepts we use to analyse it, so there is no way of classifying, or even describing, experience without interpreting it (ibid, p.23). Ultimately, I believe that a researchers individual experiences and values are inescapable, and thus are inseparable from their research. It this lack of uniformity and neutrality which causes the behaviouralists claims that theory can be objective to be a largely irresolvable weakness. Politics does not emulate the natural sciences In order to theorise the behaviouralist assume generalisations or tendency statements to help study the observed and observable. They believe there to be an expectable pattern in political phenomenon in which the regularity principle can be applied to political behaviour (Jayapalan: 2002). Political scientists operated under the pretence that humankind was perfectible and therefore a dependence on scientific political information would help to solve societal and political troubles indefinitely (Merriam: 1934). To some extent this is true, society and mankind can be predicable. There are many regularities in social life, such as getting out of bed, going to work, or reading a morning paper (Kavanagh: 1983, p.194). However, this is not always the case; both politics and humankind can be highly unpredictable in their nature, encompassing countless unforeseen circumstances and irregularities. Therefore, it is contended that there are no uniformities and laws on human behaviour and political science. . There are no regularities in political reality as it consists largely of unique elements (ibid, p.82). Therefore, it is argued that these unobservable factors and variations in politics throughout the world undermine behaviourism as a study of politics. Behaviouralists exclude the norms of human teleology (Johari: 2006, p.611). Traditionalists believe that as politics and human nature is diverse and complicated, it therefore cannot be generalised by certain pattern and regularities within human behaviour. Thus it is argued that social phenomena are [sic] quite different from natural phenomena and require different strategies of explanation. (Kavanagh: 1983, p.195) Human behaviour is shaped through culture, environment and experiences. It forms unique principles, inspirations and motives which vary from person to person. Thus, I believe that as individualism flourishes, behaviour cannot be categorised and uniformed together as mutuality. It is too easy to speak of a groups or nations behaviour as if it were identical with that of the individual person (Eulau: 1962, p.15). Hindmoor (2006) provides a good example of the unpredictability of human behaviour, finding that large numbers of the electorate, for example, do not vote for parties with policies and strategies that would leave them better off. One explanation for this finding is that voters rationally pursue interests other than their own material wellbeing (ibid, p.52). Yet these ulterior motives are impossible to gauge and quantify, providing yet another shortcoming of behaviouralism. Human ingenuity was always capable of evading them, in which they would lose their validity (Varma: 1979, p. 29). In addition, some aspects are politics are far too complicated and diverse for the use of empiricism. An area where a morally laden approach such as foreign aid is needed causes the behavioural approach to appear inadequate. The behavioural approach is able to deliver reliable knowledge only with regard to political commonplaces or trivia (Easton: 1962 p.19). Johari (2006) goes further, believing that too many inconsistencies and historic contingencies exist within human nature to allow anything but a very general kind of statement of uniformities. Ultimately, modern day politics operates on a global basis encompassing many cultures and forms and styles of government. Therefore, I believe that a major flaw of behaviouralism is that it is too narrow in its approach, ignoring global variations in human behaviour and styles of governance. Behaviouralists are charged with committing crimes of vulgar reductionism (Johari: 2006, p.611), and ultimately this acts as a fundamental a nchor in the paradigm. Conclusion In conclusion, although it is contended by certain scholars that there are some undoubted benefits of a behaviourist approach to the study of political science, the weaknesses contained within the theory are insurmountable. This essay accepts the three key epistemological criticisms of positivism. Firstly, that it marginalises normative and metaphysical discourse; this prevents one from fully understanding the subtle intricacies of politics. Secondly, positivism is challenged on the basis of its exclusivity, which thus fails to recognise the spatial trends, processes and intricacies which are involved in socioeconomic and political workings of life. Thirdly, I reject positivism based upon its autonomy of knowledge, which artificially detaches the observer from the observed. This intrinsic relationship between behaviouralism and positivism has meant that behaviouralism remains susceptible to the criticism of positivism. Therefore on this basis it undermines behaviouralism as an adequa te approach to the study of political science. Furthermore, I reject the regularities principle as a credible feature of behaviourism. Although I have acknowledged that some regularity exists in society, the nature of mankind and politics is largely unpredictable, and cannot be associated with the natural sciences because of this. In addition, although I have accepted that methodological potholes and researcher bias are not unique to just behaviouralism, I believe that they undermine behaviouralisms fundamental aim to remain objective. Ultimately, because of these three reasons I believe behavioralism lacks any real validity as an adequate approach to the study of political science.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms and recombination rate in humans :: Biology Genetic Diversity

Humans have many of the same genes but also a lot of genetic variation. Therefore, gene sequencing is different in everyone. This genetic variation determines a person's eye color, hair color, and other traits. However, this is also why some people get diseases and others don't. In a chromosome, the distance from the centromere dictates the rate of recombination. There is less shuffling in the area around the centromere, so that leads to less variation. However, understanding variation is necessary in order to determine abnormal genes. A single gene is the basis for identifying the abnormality. By looking at non-random sites with gene differentiations, one can determine the gene that causes the disease. There is more variation in regions with recombination, which happens in meiosis. The rate at which the crossing over occurs varies, and this affects the variation present. Shuffling is not the only determinant for variation in a gene. Selection also plays a role. For example, A gene is superior to B gene. C gene is connected to A gene through genetic hitchhiking. If A gene is selected over B gene, C gene is also expressed frequently. This is known as genetic hitchhiking. A biological application of this is the malaria gene. The colorblindness gene is hitchhiked onto the malaria resistant gene. Therefore, when a person receives the malaria resistant gene they also receive the colorblindness gene. As a result, colorblindness occurs more frequently in places where malaria is affluent because the people who don't receive the malaria resistant gene die and the people who are resistant and colorblind live and pass on their genes. Implications The main implication of this experiment is that comparing the differences in the various genotypes of humans can illustrate genetic diseases. For example if a subject has a certain genetic disease, this paper states that you could compare the afflicted subject's genome to an unaffiliated person's genome and determine the location of the disease on the chromosome. If the location of genetic diseases are found then it is conceivable to screen fetuses for genetic diseases. This brings up ethical issues, would you want to know if your child has an incurable genetic disease? If genetic diseases are detected in a fetus then it may be possible to someday perform gene therapy. Gene therapy is the treatment of a genetic disease by providing patients with cells containing harmless and functional alleles for genes that are nonfunctional in their bodies.

Free College Admissions Essays: Committed to Music :: College Admissions Essays

I am Committed to Music In my first piano recital at the age of eight, I felt overwhelmed by the audience' s applause. Since that first recital, I became very committed to music and attempted to build a music career. At age six, I began playing the piano, and at age fifteen, I began playing the trumpet. Admitted by a professional music high school at age sixteen, I had the opportunity of exploring the broad world of music, and the high quality of instruction greatly enriched my music background. After intensively preparing for my first trumpet competition, I won the championship of trumpet competition for the remaining two years of high school. By attending various kinds of competitions, I further developed my musical interest and abilities. After graduating from high school, I entered Soochow University, whose music department is among the best in Taiwan. During these four years, I had numerous opportunities to perform on stage. Realizing early on that performance is the lifeblood of musicians, I joined as many orchestras, wood bands, and brass quintets as possible to acquire performance experience. Having numerous performing chances, and enjoying each of them, inspired me to become a professional musician in the future. Besides taking part in performing activities, I also used my experiences and knowledge to teach students. Believing that teaching others how to appreciate the beauty of life is fulfilling, I teach both to give knowledge and to enhance my own artistic ability. Because I so enjoyed my conversations with students, I remain committed to teaching and trying to convince others of the limitless joys of music. Now, after all my music training over the years, I want to further refine my music ability and enlarge my knowledge by pursuing

Governor Phillip Essay

In this essay, I would like to examine the respective educational theories of the two men: Professor Higgins Pygmalion and Governor Phillip Our Country’s Good. Both men believe in the process of amelioration: that is, both believe in the redemptive power of ‘fine language’; if people speak fine language, they will find themselves morally or socially improved. Both believe that people, who are born into the lower classes, are not doomed to live their lives at a disadvantage. Moreover, if given the opportunity to use the ‘divine gift of articulate speech’, then they can achieve a degree of upward mobility. I should like to look first at the relationship between Professor Higgins and Eliza in Pygmalion, which is set in an era of social mobility and depends for its effect upon the English class system. In particular, I would like to examine the idea that a person’s position in society can be accurately measured by her speech-style. Henry Higgins, a professor of linguistics, believes that Eliza Doolittle (‘draggletailed guttersnipe’) can be transformed into a ‘duchess. ‘ Higgins is a scientist conducting an experiment. He wants Eliza to talk genteelly. His precise ambition is to ‘pass that girl off as a duchess at an ambassador’s garden party’. Higgins is extremely selfish (‘What does it matter what becomes of you’) and professes not to be interested in Eliza’s personal progress at all, in fact only teaching her to win a bet between Pickering and himself: THE NOTE-TAKER (HIGGINS): Well, sir, in three months I could pass that girl off as a duchess at an ambassador’s garden party. PICKERING: I’ll say youre the greatest teacher alive if you make that good. I’ll bet you all the expenses of the experiment you cant do it. As this exchange shows, Pickering has just given Professor Higgins the incentive to teach Eliza. Higgins is very vain (‘I can place any man in London’) and is teaching Eliza to stop using cockney dialect: ‘Lisson Grove lingo’ such as ‘Garn! ‘ and ‘you ought to be stuffed with nails, you ought! ‘ She also uses double negatives in her speech: ‘I aint got no parents’ where, grammatically, it should be ‘I don’t have any parents. ‘ In Act Two, Eliza goes one step further by saying, ‘I dont want never to see him again I dont’ which is in fact a triple negative. During his ‘experiment in teaching’, Higgins encounters ‘the difficulty’ of getting Eliza to talk grammatically. Teaching her to pronounce the words properly is ‘easy’ enough, but teaching her to understand English grammar is more complicated. When she comes to Higgins, her grammar is atrocious (‘I wont stay here if I dont like’), for she is using adjectives instead of adverbs. However, she is aware of her social standing. Although she knows that she is not a lady (‘I couldnt sleep here, its too good for the likes of me’), she also knows that she is not a tramp and regularly states she is not a prostitute (‘Im a good girl I am’). This chorus is her motto and shows that she has a sense of decorum. In Act Three, about three months into the experiment, Eliza undertakes what we make call a half-term test. She goes to Mrs Higgins ‘at home day’. There, she does well in her greetings of Mrs Eynsford Hill and her daughter, Clara; her four syllables ‘how do you do? ‘ are said with ‘pedantic pronunciation and great beauty of tone’. Then, however, the topic of conversation begins to turn towards incongruous subjects: ‘My Aunt died of influenza, so they said†¦ but it is my belief they done her in’. Higgins explains away Eliza’s inappropriate remark by saying that it is the new ‘small talk’. Shortly afterwards, he gives the signal to Eliza that she should leave. When asked by Freddy if she is walking, she replies with the best remark in the play: ‘Walk! Not bloody likely. Im going in a taxi’. She departs, much to the shock of the genteel folk. The conflict in this exchange is between Eliza’s ‘perfectly elegant diction’ and the crude adjective that she uses. This example of ‘Lisson Grove lingo’ or ‘kerbstone English’, when spoken in an upper-class accent, sounds incongruous and creates uproarious laughter. When we next catch up with Eliza, she has made a successful transformation from a ‘flower girl†¦ as clean as she can afford to be’ to a ‘princess †¦ in opera cloak, evening dress, diamonds, fan, flowers and all accessories’. She is at her final test, an International party at ‘an Embassy’ in London. Neppomuck, Higgins’ first student, attends, working as an interpreter: ‘I speak 32 languages†¦ You place a man anywhere in London, I place any man in Europe’. The hostess of the party instructs Neppomuck to use his skills on Eliza: ‘I have found out all about her, she is a fraud’. As Higgins thinks that he has failed and it is all over, Neppomuck reveals: ‘She is of Hungarian origin and of Royal blood. She is a Princess! ‘ Higgins, as is shown, has succeeded in his mission to transform Eliza’s speech from that of a ‘common flower girl’ to that of an ‘aristocrat’. Later, when Eliza asks Pickering if she had won his bet, he replies: ‘Won it my dear, you have won it 10 times over’. This speech by Colonel Pickering makes Eliza feel successful and when, after the party, Higgins makes an entirely selfish analysis of the ‘ordeal’ through which Eliza has been going, (‘No more artificial duchesses. The whole thing has been simple purgatory’) she passes moral judgement on him (‘you selfish brute’). When we see Eliza at Mrs. Higgins’ house we are shown that neither Higgins nor Pickering has any concept of mental cruelty, for they think that the way they have treated Eliza (who is ‘naturally rather affectionate’) by ignoring her and saying how glad they are that it is all over, is perfectly acceptable. In Act Five, Eliza realises that her ‘real education’ is not in phonetics but in manners. Eliza explains how she acquired ‘self-respect’ and has ‘risen in the world’. Shaw then puts in her mouth a political speech critical of class-differences in England in 1916: ‘The difference between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves but how she’s treated’ This declaration brings us on to discussing Our Country’s Good and Governor Phillip. At the heart of Governor Phillip’s educational theory is the belief that, if the convicts are treated as talented individuals, they will acquire self-respect. Arthur Phillip has been made ‘governor-in-chief’ of a penal colony in 18th century Australia. The criminals have been transported – a form of punishment at that time – on a convict ship to Australia, which was the most frequent destination. Excluding the convicts, there are several other men, of various ranks, with Phillip. Among these are Captain Watkin Tench and Judge David Collins, both of whom lack sensitivity. Phillip is a humanitarian and thinks it unnecessary to ‘cross fifteen thousand miles of ocean to erect another Tyburn’? : that is, to go to the other side of the Earth to hang people who could have been hanged in Britain. Tench, on the other hand, thinks that the convicts ‘laugh at hangings’ and it is ‘their favourite form of entertainment’. Phillip wishes to be humane and considers lashing as an alternative, but because the punishment is ‘unobserved’, Collins deems it useless for it ‘will not serve as a sharp example’: that is, it will not deter the other convicts. Tench agrees with him by saying that ‘justice and humaneness have never gone hand in hand’. When the discussion turns to plays and preferred authors, Phillip has the idea of the convicts putting on a play ‘for the good of the colony’. This is our first notion of the differences between Governor Phillip and Professor Higgins; Higgins is teaching Eliza for his own ‘good’, to improve his reputation, not for her benefit nor ‘our country’s good’. The only play they have is George Farquhar’s The Recruiting Officer (1706), which is a Restoration comedy. In Act One Scene Five, Phillip asks Second Lieutenant Ralph Clark to organise the play. He doesn’t really want to do it and to begin with is not very enthusiastic, but he is hopeful of promotion and so does it to please the Governor. He hears that a convict called Mary Brenham can read and write, so he roots her out. She is with her friend, Dabby Bryant, when he comes to talk to her. When he asks her questions to discover if she can read and write, Dabby interrupts and tells him: ‘She used to read to us on the ship. We loved it. ‘ This disclosure reveals Mary’s human potential; it reveals also that some convicts are sensitive to those who have been desensitised through brutal treatment. When Dabby says, ‘Mary wants to be in your play’, she is telling us that Mary wants something to look forward to, something to anticipate. When Ralph Clark starts reading some lines with her from the play, she reads the line: ‘Whilst there is life, there is hope’ This is a perfect example of a syntactically balanced ‘sentiment’. This proverbial saying comments exquisitely on their situation within the colony. In Act One Scene Six, ‘The Authorities Discuss the Merits of the Theatre’, Major Robbie Ross shows his contempt for the play (‘we’ll all be struck with stricturing starvation – and you – you – a play! ‘) Ross is a reactionary figure; he adopts a hostile manner towards the idea that the convicts may be capable of ‘sentiment’ and rehabilitation. He believes that they are incorrigible, beyond redemption; he has no confidence in the redemptive power of Farquhar’s language. Ross wastes no opportunity to vituperate against the convicts (‘vice ridden vermin! ‘), especially the women, whom he considers lower forms of life (‘Filthy, thieving, lying whores’). He scoffs at the fact that they are allowed to perform a play of ‘fine language, sentiment’ (‘Plays! ‘). In the same scene as Ross’ accusations, we find that these are actually civilised men: ‘The sky of this Southern Hemisphere is full of wonders. Have you looked at the constellations? ‘ Astronomy seems to be a reasonably intelligent pursuit. Phillip now shows his enlightened position– ‘We are indeed here to supervise the convicts who are already being punished by their long exile. Surely they can also be reformed? ‘

Organizational Behavior at Accenture Essay

1. Introduction This paper gives an overview of the organizational behavior (Organizational Structure, Culture, and Leadership) at Accenture– the last organization I worked with. Accenture is an international management consulting, technology services and outsourcing organization, with approximately 0.25 million people and clients in more than 120 countries. It has generated net revenue of US$ 27.9 billion for last fiscal year i.e. 31 st August 2012. (Accenture,2012) 2. Organizational Structure 2.1 Accenture’s Structure – At A Glance Organization’s structure divides the organizational activities and co-ordinates them to achieve the aim of the organization. Accenture is organized into various partially overlapping industry areas that allow the clients to choose from a variety of integrated consulting services. It upholds four global operations workforces: 1. Consulting 2. Servicing 3. Solutions 4. Enterprise Table 2.1 highlights five operating groups and their respective 19 industry groups within the organization. (Accenture Facts,2012) Financial services Banking Capital Market Insurance Health & Public Services Health Public Services Communications , Media & Technology Communication Electronics & High Tech Media & Entertainment Product Automotive Air, Freights & Travel Services Consumer Goods & Services Industrial Equipment Infrastructure & Transportation Resources Chemical Energy Natural Resources Utilities Table 2.1 The figure below displays the organizational chart of Accenture and explains how different sub-units interact with each other. Exam Number: B031449 Page 3 of 11 Figure 2.1 Accenture’s Organizational structure (Source: Official board, 2012) 2.2 Analyzing the Structure of Accenture Buchanan and Huczynski (2010) defined seven key elements of organizational structure and in this section, we will see how they relate to Accenture as an organization. It can be easily inferred from the organizational structure (Figure 2.1) and Work group division (Table 2.1) that Accenture is a large complex organization that requires its employees to be highly specialized in the tasks allocated to them to ensure that quality work is delivered. In order to make sure that all the employees are highly skilled with respect to their tasks, an intense induction takes place in the beginning of their journey in the organization. Accenture follows a tall organizational hierarchy structure due to its diverse workforce and workgroups where Span –of –Control for a Manager depends on the size of the project. Within the solutions workforce, in a single project, following hierarchy exists: Figure 2.2 Hierarchies in a project For example, Span of Control for the project in which I worked was a 96: Designation Programmers (10) Senior Programmers (8) Analyst Programmer (6) Team Lead (4) Manager Span of Control One Team lead , supervises 24 resources One Manager supervises 4 team-leads. So total Span of Control = 96 The tasks in each project in the Solutions workforce are departmentalized into different submodules i.e. Analysis, Design & Build, and Testing. Department of Analysis is responsible for creating business artifacts that detail out client’s requirement and proposed solution to achieve it. These artifacts are then passed to the Design & Build Team who create the high-level design documents and develops the products which client has asked for. Once the product is delivered, it is then passed on to the testing team to ensure that the final product is as per the business artifacts and there are no issues encountered. Accenture is highly formalized organization, where each project while working on a client’s requirement has to adhere to the policies, procedures and norms set by Accenture as well as the clients. This is one of the key approaches to gain the client’s trust. Since project managers have the authority to take decision related to their respective projects, we can call Accenture as highly centralized organization. 3. Organizational Culture Culture is embedded and reflected in every aspect of an organization. As stated by Ravasi, D., Schultz, M. (2006), organizational culture is a lay down of shared intellectual assumptions, which guide understanding and action in an organization by defining suitable behavior for diverse situations. Figure 3.1 is a three-layer model for organizational culture developed by Edgar Schein (2004). Figure 3.1: Schein’s three levels of culture – Source (Bohine, Markham, 2003) Insight on Accenture’s Culture 1. Schein’s three levels of Culture a) The first level i.e. Observable level is the most visible layer. Table 3.1 highlights few of the Surface manifestation of culture at Accenture Manifestation Ceremonials Course Norms Slogan Symbol Accenture Fun Fridays, sporting events, monthly birthday celebrations, quarterly awards Greenfield training for the new employees where the number of days varies from 1 week to 6 weeks depending on the employees Code of Business conduct led by multiple policies High Performance Delivered Accenture has six core values (Accenture Core Values) – Stewardship: Fulfilling our obligation of building a better, stronger and more durable company for future generations, protecting the Accenture brand, meeting our commitments to stakeholders, acting with an owner mentality, developing our people and helping improve communities and the global environment Best People: Attracting, developing and retaining the best talent for our business, challenging our people, demonstrating a â€Å"can-do† attitude and fostering a collaborative and mutually supportive environment Client Value Creation: Enabling clients to become high-performance businesses and creating long-term relationships by being responsive and relevant and by consistently delivering value. One Global Network: Leveraging the power of global insight, relationships, collaboration and learning to deliver exceptional service to clients wherever they do business Respect for Individual: Valuing diversity and unique contributions, fostering a trusting, open, and inclusive environment and treating each person in a manner that reflects Accenture’s values. Integrity: Being ethically unyielding and honest and inspiring trust by saying what we mean, matching our behaviors to our words and taking responsibility for our actions Rewards and Recognition in Accenture: Accenture has various ways of acknowledging an employee’s contribution towards achieving the â€Å"High Quality† work. In addition to promotion, few of the awards given by Accenture (specific to solutions domain) are: ACE Award – Accenture Celebrates Excellence is an award given on quarterly basis to the employees who show outstanding performance during a quarter in their respective industrial groups. The nominations for these awards are forwarded by the project manager along with the citation to justify the nominations. Innovator for the quarter – This category of award is held at different project levels and is awarded to an individual or group of people who have innovated something to either add value to the client or helped in increasing automated work to save on efforts. Star of the month – This category of award is also held at project level where the work of an employee performing extraordinary is acknowledged. Propel Awards – This category of award is held at industrial group level where the employees are awarded against different criteria’s e.g. Adding Value to Client, Organizing quality work and anticipating critical situations etc. Celebrating Performance – Celebrating performance is a tool through which Team leads and above acknowledges the work of an individual by giving them some points. These points can be redeemed via a shopping catalog holding a range of different things. c) The third level i.e. basic assumption is invisible layer. It is the perception held by individuals concerning human behavior. As mentioned earlier, this cannot be seen but felt by the individuals and hence is difficult to be described in words for any organization. 2. On analyzing Accenture based on different Cultural framework and Cultural typologies it can be said that Accenture falls into Role culture and Communal culture. The justification for this goes below: ï‚ § Accenture is very much driven by its policies, procedures, and rules, which makes it high on formalization aspect. Figure 2.1 clearly shows the level of hierarchy that Accenture has. Managers at top of the hierarchy work as per their roles and specializations that make Accenture a highly centralized organization and hence putting it into a Role culture. However, if we deep dive to the lowest division i.e. the Projects, the task to be achieved is allocated at the Managerial level and is then cascaded down to different team members based on their expertise. The aim of the team is to ensure the task is delivered on time and with a high quality. For example, in my projects, there were times when a task demanding high expertise on specific domain were assigned to the senior programmers instead of the team leads. This clearly displays that the project division is on to the Task culture i.e. high formalization, low centralization where people are acknowledged based on their expertise and not just position. ï‚ § Accenture has very strict entry criteria and employees who suit the working environment are selected. Once the employees are in the company, another level of assessment happens to check the skills to identify which project who the employee be best suited for. During an initial phase in the project, the employees are giving an intensive training about the core values of Accenture as well as the client that they are working for. The roles and goals for each individual are made clear right from the beginning and each employee is expected to have a degree of flexibility to switch the roles as and when required. All these characteristics make Accenture falls into the category of Communal culture i.e. High Sociability and high solidarity. 4. Leadership Walt Disney said, â€Å"You can dream, create, design, and build the most wonderful place in the world, but it requires people to make the dream a reality† (Disney, 2011) Accenture groups skills, competencies, and personality traits of effective leaders into three vital pillars (Accenture Leadership): Visionary Evangelist- They see possibilities and inspire others with their vision; they know where the company is headed and what its customers will value in the future. Relationship Builder-They enlist the support and capabilities of others by building loyalty, motivating and engaging. Manager of Execution- They provide structure, discipline and a sense of priorities to get things done. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard (1998) described the concept of situational leadership. Situational leadership is an approach of identifying the most effective way of motivating, directing, and supporting employees to get the work done. Whether it is the leaders at the top of hierarchy (CEO) or the leaders at the lowest division (project managers), leadership style in Accenture varies depending upon the situation. Figure 4.1 Situational Leadership Model (Source: Davidmerzel, 2012) How Leadership style works in Accenture When an employee is new to a project or the organization, it is ensured that a counselor and a supervisor are assigned to him. It is supervisor’s responsibility to ensure that the employee understand the norms and the working culture of the project and Councilor helps the employee with the career aspirations and issues (if any) faced by him while working in the project. In other words, it can be said that supervisor acts as the coach and councilor supports the employee at the same time. Supervisor and the Councilor are not the same person and it is the councilor who remains the same throughout the journey in Accenture where as supervisors keep of changing as when an employee progresses. Once an employee displays the ability and the skills required to tasks assigned (i.e. generally at Analyst Programmer level), the work is then delegated where very few directions and support are required. At no point in Accenture, you would find a leader portraying the directive leadership. Support and mentoring is always provided until an employee is capable to work on his own. 5. Synopsis Accenture is an organization on the move, one that is engaged in a good range of projects in various locations. Its culture varies from one extreme to another depending on the client and the geographical location of the office in which one reside. Employees, working at the client site, particularly for extended periods, find themselves following client’s culture as well as Accenture’s. It has a youthful environment that helps in making contacts, which lasts as an employee moves from project to project. In spite of the youthful, work-hard/play-hard atmosphere, employees strictly adhere to Accenture’s high standards, which require dedication and discipline on behalf of the employees. People at Accenture genuinely respect and admire each other. Willingness to help others and strong interpersonal skills are more common that being self-centered. This can be easily seen by the prompt responses of peers in different cities and countries towards any technical query being raised at the company’s portal. To summaries, Accenture surely is a strong cultured and centralized organization where the core values of the organization and client’s both are kept in mind and at the same time its ensured that employee’s professional aspirations are also met. I would definitely say a great place to work! 6. References (Arranged alphabetically) 1. Accenture, 2012 – About Accenture Available at: http://www.accenture.com/gb-en/company/Pages/index.aspx Accessed on: 26th October 2012 2. Accenture Core Values: Living Accenture’s Core Values [online] Available at: http://careers.accenture.com/gben/working/overview/values/Pages/index.aspx Accessed on: 26th October 2012 3. Accenture Facts,2012 – Q4 Fiscal 2012 Available at: http://newsroom.accenture.com/fact+sheet/ Accessed on: 26th October 2012 4. Accenture Leadership: Why Leadership and Culture Matters [online] Available at: http://www.accenture.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/PDF/Accenture_Why_Leadership_and _Culture_Matter.pdf Accessed on: 27th October 2012 5. Accenture Logo – Accenture UK Limited [online] Available at: http://www.enterprisemanagement360.com/company/accenture-uk-l imited/#.UIqNsm_Mjsw Accessed on: 26th October 2012 6. Bohine, Markham, 2003

Brain food to Boost your Exam Scores

You could eat oranges, strawberries, blueberries, or bananas, which are especially popular. Vegetables, raw carrots, bell peppers, Brussels sprouts, spinach, broccoli, and asparagus are good choices. Brain blockers On exam day, stay away from foods made of white flour, such as cookies, cakes, and muffins, which require added time and energy to digest. Also avoid foods that are high in refined sugar, such as chocolates, desserts, and sweets. When eaten alone, carbohydrates make you feel more relaxed than alert. So carbs are a good option for the day before the exam, but not on the actual exam day. In addition, carbs such as rice or potatoes, eaten in large quantities, can make you feel heavy and sleepy. Avoid foods that a high in sugar, such as chocolate and Coca-Cola. They will send you off on sugar highs and lows — the opposite of stabilising you during your long exam. Drink brain boosting beverages. Make sure you drink enough water before and during your exam. Tea also works, though without a lot of sugar. Dehydration can make you lose your concentration, feel faint, and sap your energy. Don’t wait till you’re thirsty to drink a glass of water. If you wait till you’re thirsty, it means your body is already a little dehydrated. Avoid alcohol completely on exam day. Obviously, you cannot do well on an exam if you are drunk, have a headache, or are feeling nauseous. In general, reduce your drinking around exam time to avoid hangovers, dullness, or excessive fatigue. Avoid caffeine, as it can increase your nervousness.. Consider taking multivitamins. Most students do not eat a healthy balanced diet. When you survive on pizza, junk food, Red Bull, and coffee, your body ends up with a lack of essential vitamins and minerals. A multivitamin can help. The B vitamins especially strengthen brain functioning. Iron, calcium, and zinc can boost your body’s ability to handle stress. Don’t Forget to Sleep. Many students get into the habit of studying late into the night, hoping to cram in a little more information into their already exhausted brains. Instead, on the night before the exam, stop studying in the early evening. After that, take it easy, eat your dinner, lay out your clothes for the next day, pack your bag, take a shower, set a couple of alarms and head to bed early. You’ve done all you can. To function at your best on exam day, you need not only the energy that comes from healthy nutrition, but also the energy that comes from adequate, restful sleep. Brain food to Boost your Exam Scores You could eat oranges, strawberries, blueberries, or bananas, which are especially popular. Vegetables, raw carrots, bell peppers, Brussels sprouts, spinach, broccoli, and asparagus are good choices. Brain blockers On exam day, stay away from foods made of white flour, such as cookies, cakes, and muffins, which require added time and energy to digest. Also avoid foods that are high in refined sugar, such as chocolates, desserts, and sweets. When eaten alone, carbohydrates make you feel more relaxed than alert. So carbs are a good option for the day before the exam, but not on the actual exam day. In addition, carbs such as rice or potatoes, eaten in large quantities, can make you feel heavy and sleepy. Avoid foods that a high in sugar, such as chocolate and Coca-Cola. They will send you off on sugar highs and lows — the opposite of stabilising you during your long exam. Drink brain boosting beverages. Make sure you drink enough water before and during your exam. Tea also works, though without a lot of sugar. Dehydration can make you lose your concentration, feel faint, and sap your energy. Don’t wait till you’re thirsty to drink a glass of water. If you wait till you’re thirsty, it means your body is already a little dehydrated. Avoid alcohol completely on exam day. Obviously, you cannot do well on an exam if you are drunk, have a headache, or are feeling nauseous. In general, reduce your drinking around exam time to avoid hangovers, dullness, or excessive fatigue. Avoid caffeine, as it can increase your nervousness.. Consider taking multivitamins. Most students do not eat a healthy balanced diet. When you survive on pizza, junk food, Red Bull, and coffee, your body ends up with a lack of essential vitamins and minerals. A multivitamin can help. The B vitamins especially strengthen brain functioning. Iron, calcium, and zinc can boost your body’s ability to handle stress. Don’t Forget to Sleep. Many students get into the habit of studying late into the night, hoping to cram in a little more information into their already exhausted brains. Instead, on the night before the exam, stop studying in the early evening. After that, take it easy, eat your dinner, lay out your clothes for the next day, pack your bag, take a shower, set a couple of alarms and head to bed early. You’ve done all you can. To function at your best on exam day, you need not only the energy that comes from healthy nutrition, but also the energy that comes from adequate, restful sleep.

Employee Involvement. Do employee involvement programs improve Essay

Employee Involvement. Do employee involvement programs improve organizational performance Discuss with reference to a minimum of four empirical studies - Essay Example Employee engagement provides them with opportunities to face off with challenging work tasks that require critical thinking to solve, thereby encouraging creativity in the workforce, which eventually becomes a great source of competitive advantage for the organization (Suhasini & Babu 2013, p.146). In that respect, a highly engaged workforce is able to acquire and develop exceptional talents, skills and experience in organizational tasks, thereby becoming extremely effective and reliable in accomplishing tasks while promoting the overall performance of the firm accordingly. The highly diversified talents possessed by an organization’s workforce are its greatest resource because they are its source of competitive advantage and without which the firm cannot function in the face of the highly complex and dynamic global business environment. The complex challenges facing organizations today require massive talent and skills, which can only be developed through creative thinking an d engagement at the workplace, but that cannot happen until the workforce is highly engaged in the intricate workplace environment. Effective talent management at the workplace through quality human resource management practices is a vital precursor to high organizational performance because it eventually inspires confidence and loyalty in the workforce, thereby earning their unending commitment to the firm (Abdulkadir, Isiaka, & Adedoyin, 2012 p.124). Precisely, employee engagement at the workplace makes them feel not only appreciated, but also acknowledged; thus, employee engagement raises their levels of self-esteem, as well as self-worth, and their motivation in organizational tasks inevitably rises eventually leading to high organizational performance eventually. A highly motivated workforce is every organization’s key strategic resource for winning competition and